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NATIONAL WOMEN'S EQUALITY ACT
for the 21st Century
Sponsored by the National Council of Women's
Organizations,
A bipartisan network of leaders from over 100 organizations
representing more than six million women.
Prepared by Eleanor Smeal and Jennifer Jackman Ph.D. of the
Feminist Majority for the National Council of Women's Organizations with extensive
consultation from Nancy Zirkin of American Association for University Women;
Heidi Hartmann Ph.D. of the Institute for Women's Policy Research; Martha Burk
Ph.D. of the Center for Advancement of Public Policy; Susan Bianchi-Sand of
the National Committee on Pay Equity; Gail Shaffer of the Business and Professional
Women USA; National Organization for Women; Anita Perez Ferguson of the National
Women's Political Caucus; NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund; Black Women's
Agenda; Professor Ronnie J. Steinberg of Vanderbilt University; Coalition of
Labor Union Women; Clearinghouse on Women's Issues; Organization of Chinese
American Women; Women's Action for New Directions; National Women's Conference;
Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press; National Women's Party; Alexandria
Commission for Women; Jewish Women's Coalition; National Association for Women
in Education; Forum '98; and National Convention of Commissions for Women.
Draft 7/28/98
National Women's Equality Act
for the 21stCentury
- I. Preamble
- II.Guiding Principles
-
1. Equality for Women and Girls
in Education
-
2. Equality for Women in Employment
-
3. Equality for Women in Taxation
-
4. Equality for Women in Retirement
Security
-
5. Equality for Women in Health
Care
-
6. Equal Access to Media for Women
-
7. Equality for Women in the Judicial
System
-
8. Equality for Women in Family
Care Responsibilities
- III. End Notes
In 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, together with some 300
women and men, convened the first women's rights convention in the history
of the United States and the world in Seneca Falls. At that time, men did
not allow women to vote, own property, keep their own wages, or win custody
of their children. They deprived married women of all civil rights and subjected
single women to taxation without representation. They barred women from colleges
and denied women all opportunity to practice law or medicine, or to become
teachers or theologians. Driven by these grievances, the First Women's Rights
Convention issued a Declaration of Human Sentiments and 11 resolutions demanding
full equality for women and an end to the tyranny of men over women. Among
the most radical of demands was recognition of women's right to vote.
The 1848 Declaration of Human Sentiments concluded, "We insist that [women]
have all the rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens of these
United States." Since then women have campaigned tirelessly for equality.
In 1923, during the 75th anniversary ceremonies of the historic
First Women's Rights Convention, Alice Paul proposed the following Lucretia
Mott amendment to the U.S. Constitution: "Men and women shall have equal rights
throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction."
This was the precursor to the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), also authored
by Alice Paul and first introduced in Congress in 1943, which read, "Equality
of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States
or by any state on account of sex." Seventy-five years after the introduction
of an Equal Rights Amendment, women are still denied a guarantee of equality
under the United States Constitution.
And, in 1998, one hundred and fifty years after Seneca Falls, women still
do not have equal representation. Women comprise a mere 12.3% of the members
of Congress, and hold only three governorships. No woman has ever served as
President, Vice President, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives,
Majority Leader of the United States Senate -- rarely even as a full committee
chair of either body of Congress.
Today, we reaffirm our commitment to Constitutional equality for women and
girls and to women's full participation in the decision-making bodies of our
nation. And we do more. We participate in and advance a global movement for
women and demand that the United States join the overwhelming majority of
nations of the world in ratifying the United Nation's Convention to Eliminate
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) without reservations, declarations,
or understandings that weaken this commitment.
When our suffragist foremothers were frustrated in their federal constitutional
fight to win suffrage, they passed state laws and constitutional amendments
to gain the right to vote state by state. They leveraged their power and worked
on multiple fronts gaining women's educational rights, property rights and
the right to keep their own wages. So too have modern-day feminists fought
to pass state ERAs, state and federal statutory guarantees to end discrimination
in employment and education, to provide equal access to credit, to end pregnancy
discrimination, and to stop violence against women among other areas. We have
lobbied, litigated, picketed, marched, petitioned, engaged in civil disobedience,
and boycotted to win women's rights.
Women of today still have not gained full political, legal, economic, social,
and educational equality. We demand that the Congress and the United States
of America ensure equality for all women -- regardless of race, class, sexual
orientation, ethnicity, disability, marital status, or age -- in all spheres
of life, including employment, education, retirement security, health care,
and care-giving and family responsibility, as well as all citizen responsibilities,
benefits and privileges. To secure these rights, as we fight for a constitutional
guarantee of equality for women and as we commemorate this 150th anniversary
of Seneca Falls, we advance the National Women's Equality Act for the 21stCentury.
Despite advances for women and girls in education, including athletics,
under Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, equality for women and
girls in education has not yet been achieved. Women faculty are less likely
to receive tenure: in 1992-1993, the majority of men faculty (68.9%) at four
year colleges and universities had tenure, compared with only 44.1% of women.1
Female students remain significantly under-represented in the fields of engineering,
computer science, and physical sciences. For example, in 1994, women received
only 28% of computer science bachelor's degrees, 26% of master's, and 15%
of doctoral degrees.2 In engineering, women received only 15% of
bachelor's degrees, 15% of master's degrees, and 11% of doctoral degrees in
1994. Fewer dollars are spend on female student athletes. 3 Female
intercollegiate athletes receive only 23% of athletic budgets and 38% of athletic
scholarship dollars. 4
In addition, gender harassment, sexual harassment by students and faculty,
and sexual assault at middle schools, high schools, and colleges are pervasive
and limit the aspirations of women and girls. Tolerance of these acts by school
officials serves to diminish the status of women and girls.
Recent court decisions have made clear the reality that protections of the
rights of women and girls under Title IX are weaker than prohibitions against
employment discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
To end discrimination against women and girls in education, the Women's
Equality Act will:
Prohibit all forms of sex discrimination in education, including sexual
harassment.
Require educational institutions and their agents to assure non-discrimination
in all educational institutions, including prohibition of sexual harassment,
and to assume vicarious liability.
Prohibit systemic practices that result in gender-based inequalities in
educational institutions and fields of academic study, and require educational
practices, policies, and procedures such as affirmative action which produce
equality for women and girls in education.
Increase funding for gender equality under the Women's Equity in Education
Act and vocational education programs.
Increase effectiveness of state-level Title IX coordinators by providing
national resources.
Require educational institutions at all levels to disclose statistics
by sex and by race including class enrollment by discipline and athletic
participation, and make this information publicly available.
Require teacher-training institutions to incorporate gender issues in
their curriculum.
Require U.S. Department of Education to submit an annual report to Congress
detailing by sex and race the disbursement of financial aid, loans and grants,
and awards in higher education, and its enforcement of Title IX.
Elimination of Wage Discrimination
Occupational segregation and sex bias in wage-setting have produced a
persistent wage gap between men and women workers. In 1997, women on average
were paid 76 cents for every dollar paid to men -- African American women
63 cents and Hispanic women 56 cents. 5 Women remain clustered
in low-paying jobs. Women comprise 98.5% of secretaries and 78.3% of cashiers,
but only 2.1% of firefighters and 2.5% of construction workers. 6
Sex discrimination continues to limit women's advancement and overall economic
well-being.
Current federal equal pay laws suffer from under-enforcement and do not
guarantee pay equity for work involving similar levels of skill, effort,
responsibility and working conditions. Traditional job evaluation systems
ignore, undervalue, or negatively value work performed by women.
If these inequities are not corrected, over her lifetime, the average
working woman will lose about $523,000 due to lost wages and retirement
benefits. 7
To eliminate wage discrimination and achieve pay equity, the Women's
Equality Act will:
Prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex, race, or national origin
for work in equivalent jobs.
Require employers to disclose wage statistics by sex and by race and make
this information publicly available.
Protect workers from retaliation for discussing and organizing around
equal pay issues.
Require modification of existing job evaluation, classification and compensation
systems to achieve gender neutrality in wage-setting.
To create the conditions for labor market equality, the Women's Equality
Act will:
Support affirmative action in employment and public contracting.
Prohibit systemic practices which result in gender-based inequalities
in employment and require practices, policies, and procedures which produce
equality for women in employment.
Prohibit employment discrimination against lesbians and gay men.
Require employers to pro-rate benefits for part-time workers.
Remove Obstacles to Legal Remedies for Sex Discrimination in Employment
With passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1991, women gained the right to
a jury trial and compensatory and punitive damages in sex discrimination
in employment cases. However, a 180 day statute of limitations inhibits
the ability of women to file sex discrimination claims. Moreover, unlike
race discrimination cases, sex discrimination suits face caps on the level
of damages that can be awarded.
To improve enforcement of existing equal employment laws, the Women's
Equality Act seeks to:
Remove cap on punitive and compensatory damages.
Extend statute of limitations from 180 days.
Strengthen enforcement of equal employment laws and increase funding for
the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and Office of Federal Contract
Compliance for this purpose.
End Discrimination in the Military
In 1994, the Clinton Administration opened a quarter million combat-related
jobs to women. However, women remain excluded from 39% of positions in the
armed forces. 8 These jobs are often higher paying, receive better
benefits, and lead to promotions. Women in the armed forces are currently
serving in capacities no less risky than combat positions, but they are
denied the advantages these positions confer.
To remove obstacles to women in military employment, the Women's Equality
Act will:
Allow women to serve in all positions in the armed forces for which they
are otherwise eligible.
Require sex integration in training in all branches of the armed forces.
Enforce sexual harassment, domestic violence, and sexual assault laws
in the military at least as well as they are enforced for the civilian population.
Prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation which is used disproportionately
to exclude and penalize women in the armed services. 8
Sex discrimination in the federal tax system contributes to the economic
marginalization of women. It discriminates against almost all women: married
and single, rich, poor and middle class.
The current tax structure divides two income married households into a
primary earner (usually he who makes more) and a secondary earner (usually
she who makes less). The system penalizes many working women by placing
an extra tax burden on the secondary earner in a family. Moreover, the system
creates a tax liability for homemakers without establishing real property
rights for women. Income and filing are considered joint for tax purposes,
but not for non-tax purposes such as property distribution in divorce.
To end tax practices that penalize women, the Women's Equality Act
will:
Prohibit sex discrimination in taxation.
Eliminate biases against the spouse who receives less pay in a married,
two-wage earner couple.
Improve and expand tax benefits for child care.
To end the funding of entities domestically and abroad which discriminate
on the basis of sex, the Women's Equality Act will:
Prohibit the distribution of tax dollars and benefits to institutions
that discriminate against women.
Make the treatment of women and girls and the recognition of their human
rights a paramount consideration in the distribution of foreign aid and
assistance.
End Disadvantages to Women in Social Security
Social security, which initially was established to be a supplemental
program, has become the major and often the only source of retirement income
for women. Older women are more dependent than men on social security for
their economic survival. Sixty-two percent of retired women overall do not
receive employer-provided pensions and therefore rely on social security
as their major source of income. 9 Social security keeps millions
of women out of poverty.
However, the social security system is based on demographics of marriage
and work patterns which have changed and produces outcomes unfavorable to
many women. For example, leaving the labor force to provide care to children
or elderly parents dramatically lowers women's lifetime average earnings
and, in turn, their social security benefit payouts. In addition, wage discrimination
against women in the labor market further contributes to women worker's
lower social security benefits and often poverty for elderly women. As a
result of these multiple factors, retired women workers receive an average
of $621 in monthly benefits compared with retired men workers who receive
an average of $810 per month. 10
The social security system, however, does try to reduce some income disparities.
Even though lower earners, who are disproportionately female, pay social
security taxes on all of their earnings while higher earners pay social
security taxes on only the first $68,400, lower income workers are benefited
by the payout schedule which reduces the disparity between high and low
wage earners by replacing a larger percentage of the earnings of low wage
earners and sets both minimum and maximum benefit levels.
To eliminate the unfair treatment of women in social security and to
enhance the economic security of older women, the Women's Equality Act will:
End policies and practices that disproportionately disadvantage women
in the social security system.
Ensure that any proposed reform of social security, including privatization
proposals, does not disproportionately disadvantage women.
Establish earning sharing allocating 50% of both spouses' earnings to
each spouse.
Credit, rather than penalize, individuals providing full-time child care
or elderly care.
Change distribution of spousal and primary earner benefit to 75% of total
benefit for spouse and 75% of total benefit for primary earner. Currently,
the primary earner receives 100% and the spouse 50%.
Raise the cap on social security taxes in order to remove the additional
tax burden on secondary wage earners.
End Discrimination in Pensions
Pension coverage for women is inadequate and unequal. Over half of full-time
working women in the private sector lack pension coverage. Women receive
half as much in pension benefits as men. 11 In 1994, the median
pension benefit for women who received private pensions was $4,200, compared
to $7,800 for men. 12
To end the sex discrimination against women in pensions that contributes
to the impoverishment of elderly women, the Women's Equality Act will:
Lower vesting requirements to enable more women to qualify for pension
coverage.
Require pension coverage of additional part-time and contingent workers
by lowering the number of annual work hours required to participate.
Improve cost of living adjustments and portability provisions in defined
benefit plans.
Require that accrued pension assets be equally divided in the event of
marital dissolution.
Entitle widows, widowers, and former spouses to deferred annuities of
deceased participants under federal retirement systems.
Require spousal consent for distribution of funds from all retirement
plans.
Medicare and Medicaid
Substantial sex bias exists in Medicare and Medicaid reimbursement for
female-specific medical procedures. Women constitute 57% of Medicare recipients
and 58.5% of the adult recipients of Medicaid. 13 Some studies
calculate that Medicare and Medicaid reimburse only 60% of obstetrics and
gynecology practice expenses compared with 91% of urology practice expenses.
14
To place equal value on health care for women and men, the Women's
Equality Act would:
Prohibit sex-based discrimination in the inclusion and in the valuing
of medical procedures for Medicare and Medicaid reimbursement, including
reproductive health care for women and men.
Require equal coverage of gender-specific prescription drugs.
Clinical Trials
Exclusion or under-representation of women overall and of women of child-bearing
age in clinical trials produces diagnosis and treatment patterns that may
adversely affect women's health.
To enable the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and conditions that
affect women and men, the Women's Equality Act will:
Require the inclusion and representation of women in health research and
clinical trials.
Insurance
Women of child-bearing age are frequently forced to pay higher premiums
on the basis of potential pregnancy. Moreover, many health insurers do not
adequately cover illnesses and conditions specific to women. Women of reproductive
age spend 68% more than men on out-of-pocket health care costs. 15
Contraceptives and reproductive health care account for much of this difference.
To eliminate sex discrimination in health insurance coverage, the Women's
Equality Act will:
Prohibit sex discrimination in health insurance, including reproductive
health care for women and men.
Require all group health insurance and health insurers to cover prescription
contraceptive drugs and devices if such plans provide benefits for other
outpatient prescription drugs and devices, such as Viagra.
Since the late 1960s, the women's movement has filed lawsuits, held sit-ins,
challenged radio and television licenses, and organized protests to increase
the representation of women in the media and to decrease the stereotyping
of women and girls. We have worked to create more on-air positions for women,
to improve the treatment of women in programming, and to promote more ownership
of the media by women.
Despite these efforts, women continue to be grossly under-represented
in the media, stereotyping persists, and media ownership remains in the
hands of men. Women make up only 8% of the management staffs of newspapers,
16 and less than one fourth of television and radio news directors
are women. 17 Men comprise 89% of the guests on the popular television
program, Nightline. 18 Eighty-five percent of the regular commentators
on the mostly government-funded National Public Radio are men. 19
To ensure women equal access to airways for communication and for educating
the public to issues concerning women, the Women's Equality Act will:
Restore Fairness Doctrine which provides equal media time access in keeping
with the original Federal Communications Act of 1934 mandating broadcasters
to operate in the public interest.
Require enforcement of equal opportunity employment practices, non-discriminatory
licensing of broadcast ownership properties, and diversity in programming.
Ensure equal access and opportunities for women in new technologies, including
telecommunications, the internet, and other emerging communications systems.
Women have been denied equality under the law by the judicial system's
consistent refusal to hold sex discrimination to as high a standard of scrutiny
as other forms of discrimination under the Fourteen Amendment. No where
is this denial of equal protection and due process more stark than in the
criminal justice system.
Bias against women both as offenders and as the victims of crimes in the
federal and state court systems is well-documented. The interests of women
are consistently found to be ignored or overvalued.
Female offenders receive disproportionately longer sentences for the same
crimes, are incarcerated in inferior facilities and facilities that are
further away from their families, face sexual assault and sexual harassment
from correctional officials, have access to fewer educational and training
programs than men and boys, and often are denied routine gynecological care.
In a society of male-dominance and control, women have been, and are,
the more likely victims of violence. Women are 5 to 8 times more likely
than men to experience violence by an intimate, 20 which includes
physical assaults, harassment, stalking, and psychological/mental abuse.
Although women of all races are equally vulnerable to intimate violence,
the intersection of race and class creates a particular vulnerability for
women who are Black or Hispanic, in younger age groups, never married, with
lower family incomes, lower education levels, and in central cities. 21
Intimate violence also impacts women at the workplace. Harassment at work,
including stalking and telephone harassment, are common efforts by batterers
to prevent their victims from working. 22 Ongoing abuse and recovery
from physical and sexual assault can impact productivity, increase lateness
and absenteeism. Recent surveys reveal that over 50% of abused women missed
work because of abuse, 23 that at least 60% of abused women reported
being late for work due to abuse, 24 and that 70% reported difficulty
in performing their job because of abuse. 25 Even Congress recognized
that over 50% of rape victims lost their jobs in the aftermath of the crime.
26
Yet crimes against women are treated less seriously than crimes against
men and property. For example, only half of all forcible rapes resulted
in an arrest in 1995. 20 And one study reported that 23% of women
who decline from reporting rape did so because they believed that the police
would be inefficient, ineffective or insensitive. 21
There are many social and systemic problems that compound violence against
women--insufficient access to protection due to inadequate responses by
law enforcement, gender bias in the courts, and limited support services.
The under-representation of women in policing contributes to poor police
response to domestic violence and sexual assault. In 1997, women comprised
only 13.6% of all sworn officer positions and only 6.5% of top command positions,
9.2% of supervisory positions, and 14.6% of line operation positions. 22
Numerous studies document that women officers respond more effectively to
domestic violence calls and are less likely to engage in police brutality.
To remove bias against women in the justice system, the Women's Equality
Act will:
Eliminate sex discrimination in the arrest, prosecution, conviction, sentencing,
and incarceration of women and girl offenders. Provide programs, facilities,
and health care to women in prison equal to those provided to men prisoners.
Make federal funds to state and local law enforcement agencies contingent
on their achievement of gender balance in their ranks.
Require the Uniform Crime Reporting Program to collect annual data on
domestic violence and other forms of violence against women.
Improve enforcement of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 and the
Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 1998, which allows prosecution of violent
crimes motivated by gender, as well as other bias crimes not currently covered
by federal law.
Create a federal cause of action against employers who discriminate against
women victims of domestic violence, stalking, and/or sexual assault based
on their status as victims of these crimes.
Enforce the civil rights remedy of the Violence Against Women Act.
Historically, women have born a disproportionate share of the care of
children, ill family members, and the elderly, as well as of the home and
household tasks. Men's responsibility for family care must be increased
and societal supports for family care must be enhanced in order to improve
women's ability to participate in economic and civic life beyond the family.
Society would benefit from women's experiences and talents. Moreover, families
would benefit from the participation of both female and male members in
household and care-giving responsibilities.
To encourage equal responsibility and societal support for care-giving
and to allow women full participation in American society, the Women's Equality
Act will:
Extend coverage of and establish paid leave under the Family Medical Leave
Act.
Provide access to affordable, quality child care.
Create incentives that facilitate equal responsibility for both women
and men in care-giving.
Strengthen child support awards and collection.
1Cynthia Costello and Barbara Kivimae Krimgold, eds., The American
Woman 1996-97 (New York: W.W.Norton & Company, 1996), 280.
2National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education, Title IX
at 25: Report Card on Gender Equity (Washington, DC: National Women's Law
Center, 1997), 29.
3National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education, Title IX
at 25: Report Card on Gender Equity (Washington, DC: National Women's Law
Center, 1997), 30.
4National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education, Title IX
at 25: Report Card on Gender Equity (Washington, DC: National Women's Law
Center, 1997), 11.
5U.S. Department of Labor, Labor Force Statistics taken from
the Current Population Survey, 1998.
6Women's Bureau, 20 Leading Occupations of Employed Women, Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 1977.
7Heidi Hartmann and Julie Whittaker, The Male-Female Wage Gap:
Lifetime Earnings Losses, Institute for Women's Policy Research Briefing
Paper, (March 1998).
8Jake Willens, Women in the Military: Combat Roles Considered,
August 7, 1996 citing, General Accounting Office Report NSIAD-96-169, Physically
Demanding Jobs - Services Have Little Data on Ability of Personnel To Perform,
July 1996.
9Michelle M. Benecke, Esq., Testimony of Michelle M. Benecke,
Esq., Co-Director, Servicemembers Legal Defense Network (Washington, D.C.:
Servicemembers Legal Defense Network, June 17, 1997).
10Institute for Women's Policy Research-In-Brief, Social Security
Reform: A Fact Sheet, June 1998.
11Social Security Administration, Fast Facts and Figures About
Social Security, (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1996), 20.
12Cynthia Costello, Ph.D., Women, Work, and Pensions: Improving
the Odds for a Secure Retirement, (Washington DC: Older Women's League,
1998), 4.
13Cynthia Costello, Ph.D., Women, Work, and Pensions: Improving
the Odds for a Secure Retirement, (Washington DC: Older Women's League,
1998), 4.
14U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Care Financing
Administrations' 1997 Data Compendium, March 1997.
15Barbara A. Goff, M.D., Howard G. Muntz, M.D. and Joanna M.
Cain, M.D., "Is Adam Worth More Then Eve?" Gynecologic Oncology 64 (1997):
372-377, citing William C. Hsiao, Ph.D., 16Daniel L. Dunn, Ph.D.
and Diana K. Verrilli, M.S., "Assessing the Implementation of Physician-Payment
Reform," New England Journal of Medicine 328 (April 1993): 928-933.
17Betty Dooley, Women's Health Care Costs and Experiences (Washington,
D.C.: Women's Research and Education Instiute, 1994).
18Newspaper Association of America Survey, 1994. Women, Men and
Report, 1995.
19Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, Extra!, July/August 1998,
11.
20Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, Extra!, July/August 1998,
11.
21Lawrence A. Greenfeld et al., United States Department of Justice,
Violence by Intimates: Analysis of Data on Crimes by Current or Former Spouses,
Boyfriends, and Girlfriends, 4 (1997).
22Ronet Bachman and Linda E. Saltzman, United States Department
of Justice, Violence Against Women: Estimates from the Redesign Survey,
1 (1995).
23Jody Raphael, "Prisoners of Abuse: Domestic Violence and Welfare
Receipt" (Taylor Institute 1996) at 8.
24Connie Stanley, "Domestic Violence: An Occupational Impact
Study," Tulsa, Oklahoma (July 27, 1992) at 17.
25Melanie Shepard & Ellen Pence, "The Effect of Battering on
the Employment Status of Women," 3 Affilia 55, 58 (1988); see also Louise
Laurence & Roberta Spalter-Roth, "Measuring the Costs of Domestic Violence
Against Women and the Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions" 25 (IWPR, Victims'
Services, & the Domestic Violence Training Project, May, 1996).
26Stanley at 17.
27S. Rep. No. 138, 103rd Cong., 2d Sess. 54, n.69 (1993), citing
E. Ellis, B. Atkeson and K. Calhoun, An Assessment of the Long Term Reaction
to Rape, 50 J. Abnormal Psychology No. 3, 264 (1981).
28Lawrence A. Greenfield, Sex Offenses and Offenders: An Analysis
of Data on Rape and Sexual Assault, Bureau of Justice Statistics, February
1997.
29Catherine Wolf Harlow, Female Victims of Violent Crime, (Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 1991).
30National Center for Women & Policing, Equality Denied: The
Status of Women in Policing, 1998.
Copyright 2000, The Feminist Majority Foundation and New Media Publishing
Inc.
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